Theme A. Divine Command Theory: Meta-ethical theory - God as the origin and regulator of morality; right or wrong as objective truths based on God’s will/command, moral goodness is achieved by complying with divine command; divine command a requirement of God’s omnipotence; divine command as an objective metaphysical foundation for morality. Robert Adams’ ‘Modified Divine Command Theory’ (divine command based on God’s omnibenevolence). Challenges: the Euthyphro dilemma (inspired by Plato); arbitrariness problem (divine command theory renders morality as purely arbitrary); pluralism objection (different religions claim different divine commands).Divine Command Theory Divine Command Theory: Crash Course Philosophy
Theme B. Virtue Theory: Ethical system based on defining the personal qualities that make a person moral; the focus on a person’s character rather than their specific actions; Aristotle’s moral virtues (based on the deficiency; the excess and the mean); Jesus’ teachings on virtues (the Beatitudes).Challenges: virtues are not a practical guide to moral behaviour; issue of cultural relativism (ideas on the good virtues are not universal); virtues can be used for immoral acts.
BBC Aristotle
BBC Aristotle
C. Ethical Egoism: Normative agent focused ethic based on self-interest as opposed to altruism; ethical theory that matches the moral agent's psychological state (psychological egoism); concentration on long term self-interests rather than short term interests; Max Stirner, self-interest as the root cause of every human action even if it appears altruistic; rejection of egoism for material gain; union of egoists. Challenges: destruction of a community ethos; social injustices could occur as individuals put their own interests first; a form of bigotry (why is one moral agent more important than any other?).
Ethical Egoism Mother Forkin' Morals with Dr. Todd May - Part 3: Psychological Egoism - The Good Place
Ethical Egoism Mother Forkin' Morals with Dr. Todd May - Part 3: Psychological Egoism - The Good Place
Theme D. Meta-ethical approaches - Naturalism: Objective moral laws exist independently of human beings, moral terms can be understood by analysing the natural world; ethical statements are cognitivist and can be verified or falsified; verified moral statements are objective truths and universal. F.H. Bradley - ethical sentences express propositions; objective features of the world make propositions true or false; meta-ethical statements can be seen in scientific terms. Challenges: Hume’s Law (the is-ought problem); Moore’s Naturalistic Fallacy (moral language is indefinable); the Open Question Argument (moral facts cannot be reduced to natural properties).
Theme E. Meta-ethical approaches - Intuitionism: Objective moral laws exist independently of human beings; moral truths can be discovered by using our minds in an intuitive way; intuitive ability is innate and the same for all moral agents; intuition needs a mature mind so not infallible; allows for objective moral values. H.A. Prichard, ‘ought to do’ has no definition; recognise what we ‘ought to do’ by intuition; two ways of thinking (general and moral). Challenges: no proof of moral intuition exists; intuitive ‘truths’ can differ widely; no obvious way to resolve conflicting intuitions.
Hume's Guillotine Is/Ought
Hume's Guillotine Is/Ought
F. Meta-ethical approaches – Emotivism: Theory that believes objective moral laws do not exist; a non-cognitivist theory; moral terms express personal emotional attitudes and not propositions; ethical terms are just expressions of personal approval (hurrah) or disapproval (boo); explains why people disagree about morality. A.J. Ayer - ethical statements are neither verifiable nor analytic; made to express joy or pain (emotion); expressed to be persuasive; emotivism is not subjectivism. Challenges: no basic moral principles can be established; ethical debate becomes a pointless activity; there is no universal agreement that some actions are wrong